25 / 12 / 27
Sapiens – Chapter 2: The Tree of Knowledge
/ˈkɒɡnətɪv ˌrevəˈluːʃn/
noun phrase
Definition: a major change in human thinking and communication abilities.
中文：认知革命
Example:
The Cognitive Revolution allowed Homo sapiens to share complex information about the world and each other.
/sɪmˈbɒlɪk ˈθɪŋkɪŋ/
noun phrase
Definition: the ability to use symbols to represent abstract ideas.
中文：符号化思维
Example:
Symbolic thinking made it possible for humans to believe in spirits, gods, and tribal myths.
/ˈæbstrækt/
adjective
Definition: existing as an idea rather than a physical object.
中文：抽象的
Example:
Humans began to think about abstract ideas such as social rules and shared values.
/ˈfɪkʃn/
noun
Definition: something imagined that does not physically exist.
中文：虚构事物
Example:
According to the author, many powerful human institutions are based on shared fiction.
/mɪθ/
noun
Definition: a traditional story that expresses shared beliefs.
中文：神话
Example:
Myths helped large groups of people cooperate by giving them a common story.
/ˈledʒənd/
noun
Definition: a popular story about the past that may not be true.
中文：传说
Example:
Legends about ancestors strengthened the identity of early human groups.
/ɪˈmædʒɪnd ˈɔːdə/
noun phrase
Definition: a social system created by shared beliefs.
中文：想象秩序
Example:
The imagined order of society exists only because people collectively believe in it.
/ˈsəʊʃl ˈkɒnstrʌkt/
noun phrase
Definition: an idea that exists because society agrees on it.
中文：社会建构
Example:
Money is a social construct that functions because people trust it.
/ˌɪntəˈsʌbdʒektɪv riˈælɪti/
noun phrase
Definition: a reality that exists through shared belief and communication.
中文：主体间现实
Example:
A company exists as an inter-subjective reality shared by many people.
/kəˈlektɪv bɪˈliːf/
noun phrase
Definition: a belief held by a group rather than an individual.
中文：集体信念
Example:
Collective belief in laws allows strangers to cooperate peacefully.
/kəʊˌɒpəˈreɪʃn/
noun
Definition: the act of working together toward a goal.
中文：合作
Example:
Large-scale cooperation gave Homo sapiens a major advantage.
/ˈfleksəbl/
adjective
Definition: able to adapt to different situations.
中文：灵活的
Example:
Humans can cooperate flexibly with many strangers.
/ˌlɑːdʒ ˈskeɪl/
adjective
Definition: involving a great number of people.
中文：大规模的
Example:
Large-scale cooperation is rare in other animals.
/ˌɪnstɪˈtjuːʃn/
noun
Definition: an established system that organizes society.
中文：制度
Example:
Institutions such as religion and law are built on shared beliefs.
/ɔːˈθɒrəti/
noun
Definition: the power to command or enforce rules.
中文：权威
Example:
Authority exists because people accept common rules.
/ˈhaɪərɑːki/
noun
Definition: a system of ranking people or groups.
中文：等级制度
Example:
Hierarchies are maintained through shared social beliefs.
/nɔːm/
noun
Definition: a standard of acceptable behavior.
中文：规范
Example:
Social norms guide behavior without physical force.
/aɪˈdentəti/
noun
Definition: a sense of who a person or group is.
中文：身份认同
Example:
Shared myths help form group identity.
/trʌst/
noun
Definition: belief in the reliability of others or systems.
中文：信任
Example:
Trust between strangers is created through shared laws and stories.
/lɔː/
noun
Definition: rules recognized and enforced by society.
中文：法律
Example:
Law functions because people believe in its authority.
/ˈliːɡl ˈsɪstəm/
noun phrase
Definition: institutions that create and enforce laws.
中文：法律体系
Example:
A legal system organizes cooperation in large societies.
/ˈliːɡl ˈfɪkʃn/
noun phrase
Definition: something treated as real by law though not physical.
中文：法律虚构
Example:
A limited liability company is a legal fiction.
/ˌkɔːpəˈreɪʃn/
noun
Definition: a company recognized as a legal person.
中文：公司 / 法人
Example:
A corporation can own property even without a physical body.
/ˌlɪmɪtɪd ˌlaɪəˈbɪləti/
noun phrase
Definition: responsibility limited to invested capital.
中文：有限责任
Example:
Limited liability protects individuals from total financial loss.
/ˌlaɪəˈbɪləti/
noun
Definition: legal responsibility for debts or damage.
中文：法律责任
Example:
Before modern companies, owners had unlimited liability.
/ˌɒblɪˈɡeɪʃn/
noun
Definition: a duty that must be fulfilled.
中文：义务
Example:
Business debts created heavy obligations for individuals.
/det/
noun
Definition: money owed to another person.
中文：债务
Example:
Debt could lead to imprisonment in the past.
/ˈprɒpəti/
noun
Definition: things legally owned by someone.
中文：财产
Example:
People sold their property to repay loans.
/ˈkredɪtə/
noun
Definition: a person who lends money.
中文：债权人
Example:
Creditors could punish debtors who failed to pay.
/steɪt/
noun
Definition: an authority that enforces laws.
中文：国家政权
Example:
The state had the power to imprison debtors.
中文：导致，引发
The Cognitive Revolution gave rise to new ways of thinking and cooperation.
中文：使……成为可能
Language made it possible for humans to share complex ideas.
中文：进行大规模合作
Humans learned to cooperate on a large scale.
中文：共享共同信念
People share common beliefs about myths and laws.
中文：相信并不存在的事物
Humans believe in things that do not exist physically.
中文：创造共同叙事
Myths create a shared story for a group.
中文：只存在于人们的想象中
Many social orders exist only in people’s imagination.
中文：有效运作
Social systems function effectively because people believe in them.
中文：依赖共同信念
Law depends on shared belief rather than physical force.
中文：充当，起……作用
Myths serve as tools for cooperation.
中文：被视为
A company is recognized as a legal person.
中文：将……与……分离
Limited liability separates personal risk from business failure.
中文：对……负责
Before modern law, owners were responsible for all debts.
中文：没有法律保护
Individuals operated businesses without legal protection.
中文：面临严重后果
Business failure could lead people to face serious consequences.
中文：失去个人财产
Failure meant losing personal property.
中文：受……支配 / 影响
Debtors were subject to punishment by the state.
中文：由……强制执行
Rules are enforced by legal systems.
中文：在……中起关键作用
Shared myths play a key role in human cooperation.
中文：被当作……对待
Companies are treated as independent legal entities.
中文：承担法律责任
Individuals used to carry full legal responsibility.
中文：塑造人类行为
Imagined orders shape human behavior.
中文：维持社会秩序
Shared beliefs help maintain social order.
中文：使陌生人能够合作
Fictions allow strangers to cooperate peacefully.
中文：超越生物学限制
Culture allows humans to go beyond biological limits.
Paragraph
Peugeot belongs to a particular genre of legal actions called ‘limited liability companies’. The idea behind such companies is among humanity’s most ingenious inventions. Homo sapiens lived for untold millennia without them. During most of recorded history property could be owned only by flesh-and-blood humans, the kind that stood on two legs and had big brains. If in thirteenth-century France Jean set up a wagon-manufacturing workshop, he himself was the business. If a wagon he’d made broke down a week after purchase, the disgruntled buyer would have sued Jean personally. If Jean had borrowed 1,000 gold coins to set up his workshop and the business failed, he would have had to repay the loan by selling his private property – his house, his cow, his land. He might even have had to sell his children into servitude. If he couldn’t cover the debt, he could be thrown in prison by the state or enslaved by his creditors. He was fully liable, without limit, for all obligations incurred by his workshop.
Topic sentence (viewpoint):
The author says that Peugeot is a “limited liability company”, which is a special kind of legal fiction.
Explanation:
He explains that for most of history, only real human beings could own property and be responsible for a business.
Example:
He uses the example of Jean in thirteenth-century France.
Jean was the business himself.
If a wagon broke, the buyer could sue Jean personally.
If the business failed, Jean had to repay debt by selling his house, cow, and land.
He might even sell his children or go to prison.
Conclusion:
The author concludes that before limited liability, a person had unlimited responsibility for business obligations.
This shows why the invention of limited liability was so important.
The author argues that Homo sapiens can create and believe in shared stories that do not physically exist.
These shared stories form an imagined order, such as laws, money, and companies.
Because many people believe in the same fiction, strangers can cooperate on a large scale and trust the system.
A limited liability company is a clear example: the law treats a company as a separate legal “person”.
This idea changes real life, because it separates personal responsibility from business risk and allows modern economies to grow.
If companies and laws are “shared fictions”, what happens when people lose trust in them—can the system still work, and why?
Limited liability encourages investment and growth, but does it also reduce moral responsibility when a company causes harm or debt?